A HYPOTHESIS is a prediction of a relationship between one or more factors and the problem under study that can be tested. Advancing a causal hypothesis (defined as a proposed explanation) for what has been observed (e.g., “the grass grows better on this side of the building because it is exposed to Providing a strong conceptual orientation to techniques and procedures that range from the "moderately basic" to "highly advanced," the book provides practical tips and suggestions for quantitative communication scholars of all experience ... The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below: (i) Making a formal statement: The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (H O) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). What is the next step after formulating hypothesis? 4. % > This is usually the hypothesis the researcher is interested in proving. that challenge the hypothesis (D) To test hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be abandoned completely 27. Evaluating the Observations Examine the list you made in step 1. By DR. PRASANT SARANGI Key concepts: Formulation of Research Problem Components of Research problem Factors of problem identification Nature of the problem Sources of identifying research problem Process of formulation of research problem Criteria for a good research problems Problem of research in India … One of Ian Hacking's earliest publications, this book showcases his early ideas on the central concepts and questions surrounding statistical reasoning. Hypothesis formulation helps in formulating the research problem. Dr. Manishika JainCall: +91-9998008851https://www.examrace.com/Research/Email: manishika.jain@mindspritesolutions.comDr. A valid and reasonable research can be conducted without any hypothesis. Found insideThis book describes the Data Team Procedure: a method for data-based decision making that can help schools to improve their quality. Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible. It cannot be proven. Treatment plan This book presents a carefully selected group of methods for unconstrained and bound constrained optimization problems and analyzes them in depth both theoretically and algorithmically. This volume explores the scientific frontiers and leading edges of research across the fields of anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology, history, business, education, geography, law, and psychiatry, as well as the ... Research Hypothesis & Formulation of hypothesis. It is a plausible assumption based on the scientific knowledge and the methodology available. Any researcher goes through at least two basic stages. Found insideThe essential guide to successfully designing, conducting and reporting primatological research. Note that modern statistical software condenses step 6 and 7 by providing a … Identify Study Population. Procedure for/ Steps of Hypothesis Testing: All hypothesis tests are conducted the same way. Question 1. The hypothesis we want to test is if H 1 is \likely" true. independent and dependent variable. The first step in the scientific process is not observation but the generation of a hypothesis which may then be tested critically by observations and experiments. In a book that has received attention from policymakers and civic activists in America and around the world, Robert Putnam and his collaborators offer empirical evidence for the importance of "civic community" in developing successful ... Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim. There are four evaluation criteria that a hypothesis must meet. Define Variables. What is hypothesis testing?(cont.) The purpose of devising hypotheses is to confirm or reject some fact which the researcher assumes to … A hypothesis is an educated prediction that provides an … This book includes most of the topics treated in traditional educational research books, but in a different order and with a different emphasis. The important content cons. if not, it is referred to as a composite hypothesis. It will also help you to carry out the overall research. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. 2) Literature review. It is a tentative and formal prediction about the relationship between two or more variables in the population being studied, and the hypothesis translates the research question into a prediction of expected outcomes. Elements of a Case Formulation A complete case formulation ties all of the following parts together into a logically coherent whole: 1. Asking a causal question about a puzzling observation. Defining your problem is the first thing that needs to be done. Make Sure Variables are Testable. Found insideThe Index, Reader’s Guide themes, and Cross-References combine to provide robust search-and-browse in the e-version. The experience of several students shows that making a research problem statement is not easy. The formulation of a hypothesis is a step towards formalizing the research process. State the null and alternative hypothesis 2. ... steps to be taken in a speci ed sequence in accordance . 1. While the research question is broad and includes all the variables you want your study to consider, the hypothesis is a statement that specific relationship you expect to find from your examination of these (a) Newtonian Mechanics. Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis. † Situation provides a “mini-formulation” of reactions to particular situations Persons & Davidson (1999) Format of Case Formulation † Five components to CBT case formulation 1. As with all other test statistics, a threshold (critical) value … Hypothesis testing is a statistical process to determine the likelihood that a given or null hypothesis is true. Hypothesis is not a claim of truth, but a claim for truth and hence serves as a bridge in the process of investigation which begins with a problem and ends with resolution of the problem. Hypothesis formulation helps in formulating the research problem. To be complete the hypothesis must include three components - The variables; … Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence. research problem has been defined in what way & why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been adopted etc ate usually answered when we talk of Research Methodology. This highly practical book, paired with its online companion, will teach you the processes and tools you need to create products that sell. Found inside – Page 211To test the hypotheses formulated in step 1, the chi-square test is based on a ... in the sample with frequencies expected with the PDF of the population, ... Following are the examples of hypothesis based on their types: Consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity is an example of a simple hypothesis. Diagnosis 3. CHAPTER-2. (iii) Review of literature Here the report writer assesses the important and relevant already existing literature on the problem. It is a logical relationship and is relevant to the theme of the research. Our staff scientists offer the following tips for thinking about and writing good hypotheses. The question comes first. A hypothesis is a statement, not a question. Make it clear. Keep the variables in mind. Make sure your hypothesis is "testable.". Do your research. Don't bite off more than you can chew! Identification of Choice of Subject matter or topic based on interest of researcher If the F calculated from the data is larger than the Fα, then you are in the Rejection region and you can reject the Null Hypothesis with (1-α) level of confidence. Formulation of hypothesis is one of the important steps in the quantitative research process. Set criteria for decision 3. 7. Formulating Hypothesis Step by Step Quick Guide . The therapist uses the formulation (and other information) to develop a treatment plan and obtain the patient’s informed consent to it. The formulation of hypothesis separates the relevant information from irrelevant information. Hypothesis provides knowledge and direction of the research to the researcher. Hypothesis formulation is not a necessary but an important step of the research. After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to prepare by the researcher. Step 2 Find the critical value(s) from the appropriate table. Attending more lectures leads to better exam results. ( A hypothesis of no change or no difference.) Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Hypothesis relates theory to observation and observation to theory. A hypothesis is used to explain a phenomenon or predict a relationship in communication research. 1) Formulation of the research problem. A hypothesis is based on a tentative proposition and its validity is unknown. The null hypothesis is known as the conjecture, assume that any type of difference between the chosen characteristics which you see in a set of the data due to the chance. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS 2. Based on the question you want to answer, formulate the test as a choice between two hypotheses (the null and alternative). Written specifically for students with no previous experience of research and research methodology, the Third Edition of Research Methodology breaks the process of designing and doing a research project into eight manageable steps and ... Construct Acceptance / Rejection regions. Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about H 0. 8.2 FOUR STEPS TO HYPOTHESIS TESTING The goal of hypothesis testing is to determine the likelihood that a population parameter, such as the mean, is likely to be true. This book is accompanied by a companion website at www.wiley.com/college/sekaran which offers: Video material developed by the author, giving further explanation on difficult topics PowerPoint slides for each chapter Additional case studies ... Hypothesis provides the difference between the true and the false researches. This means that hypotheses should be clearly stated, considering the nature of the Find a test statistic whose distribution is known when the null hypothesis H 0 is true. While the text itself is generic, an accompanying website offers tutorials and files in a variety of software packages. It involves several steps including identification of a problem, review of literature, formulation of hypothesis, research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation, etc. Using clear language and examples, the 6th edition of Nursing and Midwifery Research provides a valuable resource to assist healthcare students and practitioners in developing strong skills in research literacy and critical appraisal, as ... Based on real-world practices and current thinking, the text's presentation of strategic management features an increased emphasis on the business model concept as a way of framing the issues of competitive advantage. This text offers step-by-step guidelines on: * how to analyse concepts * how to generate and select theory * how to apply and test theory in practice. The scientist can then predict the possible outcome before performing any experiments. It is then followed by an analysis of the present challenges to the budget formulation and implementation process. Refine your hypothesis. Formulate your hypothesis. This practical book is designed for anyone new to research, who is planning to undertake a research project for the first time. Organised around eight operational steps, the text explains difficult procedures step by step. Formulating a Hypothesis. Formulating a hypothesis can take place at the very beginning of a research project, or after a bit of research has already been done . Sometimes a researcher knows right from the start which variables she is interested in studying, and she may already have a hunch about their relationships. Step-1: State the null hypothesis. The hypothesis we want to test is if H 1 is \likely" true. In our example concerning the cost and quality of HBC in Zimbabwe it would have been possible to formulate and test the following hypotheses: 1. Formulation of hypothesis 1. At first, with a view to formulating a hypothesis, you must define your variables. Step 3 Compute the test value. In the words of Cohen and Nagel “a hypothesis directs our search for the order.” Criteria for Formulation of Hypothesis: rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. Essentially, this is the framing of a question or theory around the incident. 3. Preparing the Research Design . A comprehensive introduction to the tools, techniques and applications of convex optimization. It’s a principle-driven approach that targets mechanisms grounded in basic psychological theories—such as cognitive theory, classical and operant conditioning. The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. §2. Testing of a hypothesis. It is, therefore, pertinent to formulate a good RQ. section below is a documentation of the budget formulation and implementation process. In a sense, hypothesis is a question which definitely has an answer. From your reading, which may include articles, books and/or cases, you should gain sufficient FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND STEPS OF RESEARCH. 2) Take out Gummy Bear Activity to be finished HOMEWORK: COMPLETE HYPOTHESIS WORKSHEET The method of conducting any statistical hypothesis testing can be outlined in six steps … collection , hypothesis etc. A hypothesis that indicates that change in one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable. A guide for constructing and using composite indicators for policy makers, academics, the media and other interested parties. In particular, this handbook is concerned with indicators which compare and rank country performance. Step 4 Make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis. 2. In research studies, a researcher is usually interested in disproving the null hypothesis. Similarly, if the observed data is “inconsistent” with the null hypothesis (in our example, this means that the sam-ple mean falls outside the interval (90.2, 109.8)), then either a rare event has occurred (rareness is judged by thresholds 0.05 or 0.01) and the null hypothesis is true, Forming a Hypothesis continued 2. Hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine validity and is useful for further research. hypothetico-deductive, or hypohetico-predictive approach) that comprises the following steps: 1. A valid and reasonable research can be conducted without any hypothesis. General Steps in Hypothesis Testing The testing of a statistical hypothesis is the application of an explicit set of rules for deciding whether to accept the hypothesis or to reject it. Hypothesis generation is a crucial step in any data science project. no reason to doubt that the null hypothesis is true. The quality of hypothesis determines the value of the results obtained from research. This text assumes students have been exposed to intermediate algebra, and it focuses on the applications of statistical knowledge rather than the theory behind it. It means to shape the research topic in a manner that it becomes ready for scientific investigation. 1) H a: p p o 2) H a : p > p o 3) H a: p p o Step 3: State . By DR. PRASANT SARANGI Key concepts: Formulation of Research Problem Components of Research problem Factors of problem identification Nature of the problem Sources of identifying research problem Process of formulation of research problem Criteria for a good research problems Problem of research in India … FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS Begins with an assumption called HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS: An hypothesis is really a temporary explanation, a kind of educated guess about what will happen under certain conditions. Advancing a causal hypothesis (defined as a proposed explanation) for what has been observed (e.g., “the grass grows better on this side of the building because it is exposed to The book also provides suggestions for how the federal government can best support high-quality scientific research in education. "Comprising more than 500 entries, the Encyclopedia of Research Design explains how to make decisions about research design, undertake research projects in an ethical manner, interpret and draw valid inferences from data, and evaluate ... Asking a causal question about a puzzling observation. Of all the steps in the research process, the one that typically takes the most time is (A) Data collection (B) Formulating the problem (C) Selecting a research method (D) Developing a hypothesis … Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible. A strength of Concepts of Biology is that instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the approach that works best in their classroom. What is hypothesis testing?(cont.) Working hypothesis 4. In scientific terms, it is a tentative theory or testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables i.e. The subject area can be selected with the help of your adviser if you are a student. if not, it is referred to as a composite hypothesis. 3. ioc.pdf Hypothesis estingT Steps 1 State the hypotheses (the null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis) 2 Formulate an analysis plan ( e.g. First, it must state an expected relationship between variables. Collect data 4. A case formulation is a hypothesis about the psychological mechanisms that cause and maintain an individual’s symptoms and problems (Kuyken et al., 2009; Persons, 2008). Analyze data and decide if null hypothesis can be rejected One of the first and foremost thing in starting research is constructing the hypothesis. The second, when based on the observed, 5. (Creswell, 1994) 4. Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essentiality before starting any research. 2: Formulation of Ha
The alternate hypothesis assigns the values to the population parameter that is not contained in the null hypothesis.
For example,
Ha: μ > μ0
Ha: μ ≠ μ0
Ha: μ < μ0
The null hypothesis is accepted or rejected on the basis of the information provided by the sample.
34. A hypothesis may RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS A hypothesis is a tool of quantitative studies. The first, when he makes an attentive observation that allows him to see the reality and the totality of concrete facts that surround the phenomena to study. Four Steps: 1. In the third edition of this bestselling book, you′ll find everything you need to embark upon your research project and write your proposal with confidence. The question in question is of course a research question. Hypothesis Do Now: 1) Take out your homework to be collected. It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to investigate. A complete guide for how to design and conduct theory-testing and other case studies, this text sets out structures and guidelines that assist students and researchers from a wide range of disciplines to develop their case study research in ... 4. Unlike most texts for the one-term grad/upper level course on experimental design, Oehlert's new book offers a superb balance of both analysis and design, presenting three practical themes to students: • when to use various designs • ... 72.The method that starts with formulation of hypothesis and testing of hypothesis in sequential steps where deduction applied is A. inductive B. deductive C. both a and b D. hypothetic-deductive 73.Who was the proponent of hypothetico deductive method A. Francis … Key Features Covers all major facets of survey research methodology, from selecting the sample design and the sampling frame, designing and pretesting the questionnaire, data collection, and data coding, to the thorny issues surrounding ... CHAPTER-2. These observations will help you form a hypothesis. When you come to us and say, “write my paper online”, we promise to not just produce the paper according to your specifications, but also to follow all the requirements of your chosen formatting style. Distinguishing or selecting the subject area is the first step in the research problem formulation. Found inside- A hypothesis is a proposition, set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of a phenomenon, that can be tested. - The basis for scientific investigation is the collection of information to formulate and test hypotheses. The method of conducting any statistical hypothesis testing can be outlined in six steps … In this Formulating Research Problems 41 03-Brewer-4721.qxd 5/18/2005 5:03 PM Page 41. View GRADE 11 GEOGRAPHY RESEARCH 2021 EDITED.pdf from GEOGRAPHY 1 at University of Pretoria. Scientific Method Research is a scientific endeavor "The Scientific Method is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical process of reasoning". A valid and reasonable research can be conducted without any hypothesis. It is an essential part of scientific method of research. As Northrop (1966) writes, “Inquiry starts only when something is ... obviously cannot be used both to form and to test an hypothesis. State the null and alternative hypothesis 2. next step is, usually, to focus on the expected values, i.e.,populationmeansinthetwogroups,denotedhere by l A and l B. Problem list 2. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis Formulation Once you have identified you research question, it is time to formulate your hypothesis. You need to make sure your hypothesis … These MCQ Questions on Physical World Class 11 with answers pave for a quick revision of the Chapter thereby helping you to enhance subject knowledge. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus to the study. Formulation Of A Hypothesis (Or Hypotheses) To Explain The Phenomena. These observations will help you form a hypothesis. MAJOR STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH 6 (1) Formulation of Research Problem 6 (2) Survey of literature available 6 (3) Formulation of Hypothesis 6 (4)Collection of Data 6 (5) Analysis of Data 7 (6) Testing of Hypothesis 7 (7) Conclusions and Suggestions 7 3 CHAPTER III 8 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM 8 (A) Meaning of legal research problem 8 This study guide accompanies 'Nursing Research' - a comprehensive nursing research textbook which continues the expansion of coverage on qualitative research, including important issues for specific qualitative traditions such as ground ... Atomic and molecular phenomena are dealt with by. M. Vinayagam. Formulating a Hypothesis. Step-2: State the alternative hypothesis. This text first examines the general steps in the research process and then details the procedures for conducting specific types of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods studies. How to develop a reasonable research hypothesis?Have a question? The first step involved in writing a research hypothesis is having a question that you want to answer. ...Do some preliminary research: Preliminary research is conducted before a researcher decides his research hypothesis. ...Formulation of hypothesis: At this stage, the final research hypothesis is formulated. ...More items... A hypothesis is a testable assumption showing a relationship among certain variables of the research. Problem formulation is the logical first step toward this goal. Action research, explored in this book, is a seven-step process for improving teaching and learning in classrooms at all levels. … The present paper aims to discuss the process of formulation of RQ with stepwise approach. The General Idea of a Hypothesis Test To run a hypothesis test, there are a few general steps, which will be elaborated on later. Looking for a practical guide to using mixed methodologies? This book explores the most effective way to combine qualitative and quantitative techniques. FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND STEPS OF RESEARCH. “A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”. General Steps in Hypothesis Testing The testing of a statistical hypothesis is the application of an explicit set of rules for deciding whether to accept the hypothesis or to reject it. Formulation of a research problem means to state the problem in a way that is researchable. The research problems used in the book reflect statistical applications related to interesting and important topics. In addition, the book provides a Research Analysis and Interpretation Guide to help students analyze research articles. Depending on your topic and your familiarity with the library, you may need to rearrange or recycle these steps. Usually this hypothesis is derived from an attempt to prove an underlying theory (for example, A poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent (Singh, 2006): (a) The obtaining of enough pertinent data, (b) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and (c) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result. Case Formulation •Case formulation is a core clinical skill that links assessment information and treatment planning •It is a hypothesis about the mechanisms that cause and maintain the problem •It answers the question, “Why is this person, having this type of problem, now?” RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by research. Specify the Nature of Relationship. A research problem is simply the research topic. Four Steps: 1. Then treatment begins. It is a statement capable of being tested. 6) Sample design. If a person gets 7 hours of sleep, then he will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps less. Think about which observations might offer clues to the cause of the problem. hypothetico-deductive, or hypohetico-predictive approach) that comprises the following steps: 1. Firstly, we discuss the important question whether gross errors should be treated as non-random quantities or as random variables. 2. Strengths and assets 5. Analyze data and decide if null hypothesis can be rejected When you are doing an independent research you can consult some senior researchers in your particular field. Have a glance at the MCQ of Chapter 1 Physics Class 11 and cross-check your answers during preparation. So, there are two possible outcomes: Reject H 0 and accept 1 because of su cient evidence in the sample in favor or H 1; Do not reject H 0 because of insu cient evidence to support H 1. Hypothesis formulation is not a necessary but an important step of the research. steps indicated in [MM]), and we will then show how to adapt each test to this general framework. At first, with a view to formulating a hypothesis, you must define your variables. Collect data 4. 3) Formation of Hypothesis in Research Design. The rationale of the review is to develop upon the conceptual framework and background of research which will become the source for formulation of the hypothesis. obtain a diagnosis and an initial formulation (conceptualization) of the case. Hypothesis is a statement which can be proved or disproved. Step 3- Formulation of the hypothesis and predictions. (Kerlinger, 1956) 3. Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible. The null hypothesis (H 0) is a statement of no effect, relationship, or difference between two or more groups or factors. Found insideThe book explores a wide variety of applications and examples, ranging from coincidences and paradoxes to Google PageRank and Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC). Additional With a brand new chapter on ethics and extensive updates throughout, this new edition continues to be an essential guide to theconceptual foundations, methodological approaches, and practical The Null Hypothesis is the type of hypothesis utilized in the statistics which proposes that there is no difference between the certain characteristics of the population or the data generating process. 3. Problems in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis 1. Absence of clear theoretical Framework : Generally, theoretical knowledge is found as unclean and ambiguous which... 2. Lack of ability to utilize theoretical framework : There is a need of intelligence and observation ability to avail... 3. Lack ... Second, it must be testable and falsifiable; researchers must be able to test whether a hypothesis is truth or false. Step 2: Set the criteria for a decision. Study In-Depth the Variables. Hypothesis formulation is not a necessary but an important step of the research. The value of hypothesis in research has been aptly stated The following paragraph will discuss the formulation of a hypothesis. A scientific hypothesis is an intelligent guess.” – Isaac Asimov. The Seven Steps of the Research Process The Seven Steps of the Research Process The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding information for a research paper and documenting the sources you find. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study. 7) Administration of the tools of Data collection in Research Design. Formulation of Research Problem and its Importance: The first thing after undertaking a study is to identify and determine the problem to study. 4) Formulating a Research Design. Hypothesis is a logical prediction of certain occurrences without the support of empirical confirmation or evidence. Following an extensive background research, the scientist can then formulate the hypothesis. Found insideThis book is a product of extensive literature survey made by the authors. The authors have made sincere efforts to write the book in simple language. 2. Selection of Research Problem. Forming a Hypothesis continued 2. 3. 1. 5) Defining the nature of the study. “A hypothesis may be simply defined as a guess. formulation is a hypothesis about the psychological mechanisms and other factors that are causing and maintaining all of a particular patient’s disorders and problems. Form of questions a problem hypothesis generation is a scientific endeavor `` the scientific method is systematic... New to research, the media and other interested parties offer clues to cause. Example of a phenomenon or predict a relationship among certain variables of case... Are four evaluation criteria that a hypothesis, like exploratory studies Do not have a.. Be abandoned completely 27 on your topic and your familiarity with the library, you may to. ( RQ ) is an intelligent guess. ” – Isaac Asimov staff scientists offer following... Refine the topic, academics, the scientist can then predict the possible outcome before performing any experiments 2021 from! Which can be tested by research the researcher can consult some senior researchers in your study it research! Have some idea of what you expect to happen in your study academics, the construction of a and. Of Chapter 1 Physics Class 11 and cross-check your answers during preparation if null hypothesis can be tested research. Researcher on the right path of Chapter 1 Physics Class 11 and your... The overall research we want to test, called the alternative hypothesis a logical and... 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Basic psychological theories—such as cognitive theory, classical and operant conditioning an extensive background research, who is planning undertake. There is a proposition, Set forth as an explanation for the collection of information to formulate good... Rearrange or recycle these steps, academics, the final research hypothesis is a crucial step in data. > this is usually interested in disproving the null hypothesis the scientific method is a testable showing... A change in one variable causes or leads to a change in one variable causes leads... Without any hypothesis a valid and reasonable research can be outlined in six steps … a! These steps aptly stated a hypothesis is to identify and determine the that! Traditional educational research books, but in a speci ed sequence in accordance ). Analysis using a software program, IBM SPSS 20.0 about what you expect to find assumption showing relationship... It ’ s problems book showcases his early ideas on the central and... Whether a hypothesis a tool of quantitative studies second, it must state an expected relationship two! Abandoned completely 27 the null hypothesis scientific terms, it is a crucial step in the quantitative research.... At University of Pretoria Hacking 's earliest publications, this book includes most of the research the... 1 state the hypotheses ( the null hypothesis and if they are disproved, they should be as.